---
title: "30 Theory Quotes By Steven Weinberg"
description: "30 Theory quotes by Steven Weinberg. Plus more from Steven Weinberg and more Theory sayings from other authors."
image: "https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/99b/steven-weinberg-3159_gravitational_energy-of-any-sort-generates-gravitation_1467075.png"
---

> [“energy of any sort generates gravitational fields and is in turn acted on by gravitational fields, so an energy filling all space…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/energy-of-any-sort-generates-gravitational-fields-and-is-in-turn/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/99b/steven-weinberg-3159_gravitational_energy-of-any-sort-generates-gravitation_1467075.png)

> [My Ph.D. thesis, with Sam Treiman as adviser, was on the application of renormalization theory to the effects of strong interactions in…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/my-ph-d-thesis-with-sam-treiman-as-adviser-was-on-the-application-of/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/4fb/steven-weinberg-3159_adviser_my-ph-d-thesis-with-sam-treiman-as-advis_2149729.png)

> [It appears that anything you say about the way that theory and experiment may interact is likely to be correct, and anything…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/it-appears-that-anything-you-say-about-the-way-that-theory-and/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d59/steven-weinberg-3159_experiment_it-appears-that-anything-you-say-about-t_2383233.png)

> [Quantum field theory, which was born just fifty years ago from the marriage of quantum mechanics with relativity, is a beautiful but…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/quantum-field-theory-which-was-born-just-fifty-years-ago-from-the/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/bf1/steven-weinberg-3159_beautiful_quantum-field-theory-which-was-born-just_3042062.png)

> [Our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but that we do not take them seriously enough.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/our-mistake-is-not-that-we-take-our-theories-too-seriously-but-that/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/17f/steven-weinberg-3159_enough_our-mistake-is-not-that-we-take-our-theo_682632.png)

> [It seems that scientists are often attracted to beautiful theories in the way that insects are attracted to flowers — not by…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/it-seems-that-scientists-are-often-attracted-to-beautiful-theories-in/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/022/steven-weinberg-3159_beautiful_it-seems-that-scientists-are-often-attra_449612.png)

> [Nothing in physics seems so hopeful to as the idea that it is possible for a theory to have a high degree…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/nothing-in-physics-seems-so-hopeful-to-as-the-idea-that-it-is/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b03/steven-weinberg-3159_day-life_nothing-in-physics-seems-so-hopeful-to-a_2403269.png)

> [Journalists generally have no bias toward one cosmological theory or another, but many have a natural preference for excitement.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/journalists-generally-have-no-bias-toward-one-cosmological-theory-or/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/bc8/steven-weinberg-3159_bias_journalists-generally-have-no-bias-towar_892226.png)

> [“Itwas one time when people thought the value of the fine structure constant wasimportant. Now of course it's still important, of course,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/itwas-one-time-when-people-thought-the-value-of-the-fine-structure/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/659/steven-weinberg-3159_fine-structure-const_itwas-one-time-when-people-thought-the-v_2983493.jpg)

> [“At sufficiently high energy the force of gravitation between two typical elementary particles becomes as strong as any other force between them.…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/at-sufficiently-high-energy-the-force-of-gravitation-between-two/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/2b6/steven-weinberg-3159_energy_at-sufficiently-high-energy-the-force-of_2217146.png)

> [It was one time when people thought the value of the fine structure constant was important. Now of course it's still important,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/it-was-one-time-when-people-thought-the-value-of-the-fine-structure/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/3a7/steven-weinberg-3159_constant_it-was-one-time-when-people-thought-the_1614554.jpg)

> [My work during the 1970s has been mainly concerned with the implications of the unified theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions, with…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/my-work-during-the-1970s-has-been-mainly-concerned-with-the/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/c3a/steven-weinberg-3159_1970s_my-work-during-the-1970s-has-been-mainly_3169580.png)

> [When you do calculations using quantum mechanics, even when you are calculating something perfectly sensible like the energy of an atomic state,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/when-you-do-calculations-using-quantum-mechanics-even-when-you-are/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/3fe/steven-weinberg-3159_energy_when-you-do-calculations-using-quantum-m_2242414.jpg)

> [How strange it would be if the final theory were to be discovered in our lifetimes! The discovery of the final laws…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/how-strange-it-would-be-if-the-final-theory-were-to-be-discovered-in/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/e62/steven-weinberg-3159_century_how-strange-it-would-be-if-the-final-the_1723363.png)

> [There is now a feeling that the pieces of physics are falling into place, not because of any single revolutionary idea or…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/there-is-now-a-feeling-that-the-pieces-of-physics-are-falling-into/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/094/steven-weinberg-3159_effort_there-is-now-a-feeling-that-the-pieces-o_1622503.png)

> [“To calculate 'the' fine structure constant, 1/137, we would need a realistic model of just about everything, and this we do not…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/to-calculate-the-fine-structure-constant-1-137-we-would-need-a/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b2c/steven-weinberg-3159_fine-structure-const_to-calculate-the-fine-structure-constant_2111657.png)

> [This is often the way it is in physics - our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/this-is-often-the-way-it-is-in-physics-our-mistake-is-not-that-we/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b5c/steven-weinberg-3159_agreement_this-is-often-the-way-it-is-in-physics-o_93803.png)

> [“In its final form, the general theory of relativity was just a reinterpretation of the existing mathematics of curved spaces in terms…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/in-its-final-form-the-general-theory-of-relativity-was-just-a/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/3f8/steven-weinberg-3159_general-relativity_in-its-final-form-the-general-theory-of_689158.jpg)

> [I now want to tell three stories about advances in twentieth-century physics. A curious fact emerges in these tales: time and again…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/i-now-want-to-tell-three-stories-about-advances-in-twentieth-century/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/ad7/steven-weinberg-3159_art_i-now-want-to-tell-three-stories-about-a_1258518.png)

> [“What one needs is a quantum mechanical model with a wave function that describes not only various systems under study but also…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/what-one-needs-is-a-quantum-mechanical-model-with-a-wave-function/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/201/steven-weinberg-3159_quantum_what-one-needs-is-a-quantum-mechanical-m_1971825.png)

> [Even though their arguments did not invoke religion, I think we all know what's behind these arguments. They're trying to protect religious…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/even-though-their-arguments-did-not-invoke-religion-i-think-we-all/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d8b/steven-weinberg-3159_alternatives_even-though-their-arguments-did-not-invo_784771.png)

> [“The fact that the force of gravity can be made to disappear for a brief time over a small region around any…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-fact-that-the-force-of-gravity-can-be-made-to-disappear-for-a/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/dd4/steven-weinberg-3159_gravitational_the-fact-that-the-force-of-gravity-can-b_2711741.png)

> [“In general the fact that gravitational and inertial forces are both proportional to the mass of the body on which they act…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/in-general-the-fact-that-gravitational-and-inertial-forces-are-both/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/27c/steven-weinberg-3159_perfect-balance_in-general-the-fact-that-gravitational-a_1296953.png)

> [“The apparent strengths of the forces in any field theory depend on two kinds of numerical parameter: the masses (if any) of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-apparent-strengths-of-the-forces-in-any-field-theory-depend-on/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/7c5/steven-weinberg-3159_theory_the-apparent-strengths-of-the-forces-in_33942.jpg)

> [“The idea of an anthropic principle began with the remark that the laws of nature seem surprisingly well suited to the existence…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-idea-of-an-anthropic-principle-began-with-the-remark-that-the/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/573/steven-weinberg-3159_anthropic-principle_the-idea-of-an-anthropic-principle-began_1753708.jpg)

> [“The principles of relativity and quantum mechanics are almost incompatible with each other and can coexist only in a limited class of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-principles-of-relativity-and-quantum-mechanics-are-almost/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/341/steven-weinberg-3159_magnetic-fields_the-principles-of-relativity-and-quantum_1230535.jpg)

> [Premature as the question may be, it is hardly possible not to wonder whether we will find any answer to our deepest…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/premature-as-the-question-may-be-it-is-hardly-possible-not-to-wonder/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/39b/steven-weinberg-3159_answers_premature-as-the-question-may-be-it-is-h_1995894.jpg)

> [If you have bought one of those T-shirts with Maxwell's equations on the front, you may have to worry about its going…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/if-you-have-bought-one-of-those-t-shirts-with-maxwell-s-equations-on/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/0ed/steven-weinberg-3159_becoming_if-you-have-bought-one-of-those-t-shirts_1047734.png)

> [How then did we come to the "standard model"? And how has it supplanted other theories, like the steady state model? It…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/how-then-did-we-come-to-the-standard-model-and-how-has-it-supplanted/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/874/steven-weinberg-3159_astrophysics_how-then-did-we-come-to-the-standard-mod_1677859.jpg)

> [If history is any guide at all, it seems to me to suggest that there is a final theory. In this century…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/if-history-is-any-guide-at-all-it-seems-to-me-to-suggest-that-there/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/fd5/steven-weinberg-3159_arrows_if-history-is-any-guide-at-all-it-seems_306268.png)

## Other authors on Theory

## More by Steven Weinberg

> [On balance the moral influence of religion has been awful.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/on-balance-the-moral-influence-of-religion-has-been-awful/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [“The apparent strengths of the forces in any field theory depend on two kinds of numerical parameter: the masses (if any) of the particles…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-apparent-strengths-of-the-forces-in-any-field-theory-depend-on/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [“Many people do simply awful things out of sincere religious belief, not using religion as a cover the way that Saddam Hussein may have…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/many-people-do-simply-awful-things-out-of-sincere-religious-belief/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [This is often the way it is in physics - our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but that we…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/this-is-often-the-way-it-is-in-physics-our-mistake-is-not-that-we/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [With or without religion, you would have good people doing good things and evil people doing evil things. But for good people to do…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/with-or-without-religion-you-would-have-good-people-doing-good-things/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [I would say it's a lot easier to develop a decoy system than to develop the intercontinental ballistic missile itself. I would think that…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/i-would-say-it-s-a-lot-easier-to-develop-a-decoy-system-than-to/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [Rational argument can be defeated by refusing to argue rationally.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/rational-argument-can-be-defeated-by-refusing-to-argue-rationally/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [The universe is an enormous direct product of representations of symmetry groups.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/the-universe-is-an-enormous-direct-product-of-representations-of/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [Its a consequence of the experience of science. As you learn more and more about the universe, you find you can understand more and…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/its-a-consequence-of-the-experience-of-science-as-you-learn-more-and/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [Our job in physics is to see things simply, to understand a great many complicated phenomena in a unified way, in terms of a…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/our-job-in-physics-is-to-see-things-simply-to-understand-a-great-many/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [“Plato and the neo-Platonists taught that the beauty we see in nature is a reflection of the beauty of the ultimate, the nous. For…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/plato-and-the-neo-platonists-taught-that-the-beauty-we-see-in-nature/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [An expert is a person who avoids the small errors while sweeping on to the grand fallacy.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/an-expert-is-a-person-who-avoids-the-small-errors-while-sweeping-on/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [If (the antiproton) had not been discovered, the foundations of physics really would have crumbled.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/if-the-antiproton-had-not-been-discovered-the-foundations-of-physics/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [Even though I knew pretty early that I was going to be a scientist, it wasn't the science that interested me in science fiction;…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/even-though-i-knew-pretty-early-that-i-was-going-to-be-a-scientist-it/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

> [If history is any guide at all, it seems to me to suggest that there is a final theory. In this century we have…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/steven-weinberg/if-history-is-any-guide-at-all-it-seems-to-me-to-suggest-that-there/)

[Steven Weinberg](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/steven-weinberg/)

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                        "text": "Quantum field theory, which was born just fifty years ago from the marriage of quantum mechanics with relativity, is a beautiful but not very robust child.",
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                        "text": "It seems that scientists are often attracted to beautiful theories in the way that insects are attracted to flowers — not by logical deduction, but by something like a sense of smell.",
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                        "text": "Nothing in physics seems so hopeful to as the idea that it is possible for a theory to have a high degree of symmetry was hidden from us in everyday life. The physicist's task is to find this deeper symmetry.",
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                        "text": "Journalists generally have no bias toward one cosmological theory or another, but many have a natural preference for excitement.",
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                        "text": "“Itwas one time when people thought the value of the fine structure constant wasimportant. Now of course it's still important, of course, as a practical matter,but we now know that the value it has is a function, that in any fundamental theory you derive the fine structure constant as a function of all sorts of mass ratios and so on, and it's not really that fundamental.”",
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                        "text": "“At sufficiently high energy the force of gravitation between two typical elementary particles becomes as strong as any other force between them. The energy at which this happens is about a thousand million billion billion volts. This is known as the Planck energy.”",
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                        "text": "My work during the 1970s has been mainly concerned with the implications of the unified theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions, with the development of the related theory of strong interactions known as quantum chromodynamics, and with steps toward the unification of all interactions.",
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                        "text": "When you do calculations using quantum mechanics, even when you are calculating something perfectly sensible like the energy of an atomic state, you get an answer that is infinite. This means you are wrong - but how do you deal with that? Is there something wrong with the theory, or something wrong with the way you are doing the calculation?",
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                        "text": "How strange it would be if the final theory were to be discovered in our lifetimes! The discovery of the final laws of nature will mark a discontinuity in human intellectual history, the sharpest that has occurred since the beginning of modern science in the seventeenth century. Can we now imagine what that would be like?",
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                        "text": "There is now a feeling that the pieces of physics are falling into place, not because of any single revolutionary idea or because of the efforts of any one physicist, but because of a flowering of many seeds of theory, most of them planted long ago.",
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                        "text": "“To calculate 'the' fine structure constant, 1/137, we would need a realistic model of just about everything, and this we do not have. In this talk I want to return to the old question of what it is that determines gauge couplings in general, and try to prepare the ground for a future realistic calculation.”",
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                        "text": "This is often the way it is in physics - our mistake is not that we take our theories too seriously, but that we do not take them seriously enough. It is always hard to realize that these numbers and equations we play with at our desks have something to do with the real world. Even worse, there often seems to be a general agreement that certain phenomena are just not fit subjects for respectable theoretical and experimental effort.",
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                        "text": "“In its final form, the general theory of relativity was just a reinterpretation of the existing mathematics of curved spaces in terms of gravitation, together with a field equation that specified the curvature produced by any given amount of matter and energy. Remarkably, for the small densities and low velocities of the solar system, general relativity gave just the same results as Newton's theory of gravitation, with the two theories distinguished only by tiny effects like the precession of orbits and the deflection of light.”",
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                        "text": "I now want to tell three stories about advances in twentieth-century physics. A curious fact emerges in these tales: time and again physicists have been guided by their sense of beauty not only in developing new theories but even in judging the validity of physical theories once they are developed. Simplicity is part of what I mean by beauty, but it is a simplicity of ideas, not simplicity of a mechanical sort that can be measured by counting equations or symbols.",
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                        "text": "“What one needs is a quantum mechanical model with a wave function that describes not only various systems under study but also something representing a conscious observer. With such a model, one would try to show that, as a result of repeated interactions of the observer with individual systems, the wave function of the combined system evolves with certainty to a final wave function, in which the observer has become convinced that the probabilities of the individual measurements are what are prescribed in the Copenhagen interpretation.”",
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                        "text": "Even though their arguments did not invoke religion, I think we all know what's behind these arguments. They're trying to protect religious beliefs from contradiction by science. They used to do it by prohibiting teachers from teaching evolution at all; then they wanted to teach intelligent design as an alternative theory; now they want the supposed \"weaknesses\" in evolution pointed out. But it's all the same program - it's all an attempt to let religious ideas determine what is taught in science courses.",
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                        "text": "“The fact that the force of gravity can be made to disappear for a brief time over a small region around any point in a gravitational field by adopting a suitable freely fallinf frame of reference is just like the property of curved surfaces, that we can make a map that despite the curvature of the surface correctly indicates distances and directions in the immediate neighborhood of any point we like. If the surface is curved, no one map will correctly indicate distances and directions everywhere; any map of a large region is a compromise, distorting distances and directions in one way or another.”",
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                        "text": "“In general the fact that gravitational and inertial forces are both proportional to the mass of the body on which they act but depend on no other property of the body makes it possible at any point in any gravitational field to identify a \"freely falling frame of reference\" in which neither gravitational nor inertial forces are felt because they are in perfect balance for all bodies. When we do feel gravitational or inertial forces it is because we are not in a freely falling frame. For example, on the earth's surface freely falling bodies accelerate toward the center of the earth at 32 feet per second per second, and we feel a gravitational force unless we happen to be accelerating downward at the same rate. Einstein made a logical jump and guessed that gravitational and inertial forces were at bottom the same thing. He called this the principle of equivalence of gravitation and inertia, or the equivalence principle for short. According to this principle, any gravitational field is completely described by telling which frame of reference is freely falling at each point in space.”",
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                        "text": "“The apparent strengths of the forces in any field theory depend on two kinds of numerical parameter: the masses (if any) of the particles like W and Z particles that transmit the forces, and certain intrinsic strengths (also known as coupling constants) that characterize the likelihood for particles like photons or gluons or W and Z particles to be emitted and reabsorbed in particle reactions. The masses arise from spontaneous symmetry breaking, but the intrinsic strengths are numbers that appear in the underlying equation of the theory. Any symmetry that connects the strong with the weak and electromagnetic forces, even if spontaneously broken, would dictate that the intrinsic strengths of the electroweak and strong forces should (with suitable conventions for how they are defined) all be equal. The apparent differences between the strengths of the forces would have to be attributed to the spontaneous symmetry breaking that produces differences in the masses of the particles that transmit the forces, in much the same way that the differences between the electromagnetic and weak forces arise in the standard model from the fact that the electroweak symmetru breaking gives the W and Z particles very large masses, while the photon is left massless. But it is clear that the intrinsic strengths of the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force are not equal; the strong nuclear force, as its name suggests, is much stronger than the electromagnetic force, even though both of these forces are transmitted by massless particles, the gluons and photons.”",
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                        "text": "“The idea of an anthropic principle began with the remark that the laws of nature seem surprisingly well suited to the existence of life. A famous example is provided by the synthesis of the elements. According to modern ideas, this synthesis began when the universe was about three minutes old (before then it was too hot for protons and neutrons to stick together in atomic nuclei) and was later continued in stars. It had originally been though that the elements were formed by adding one nuclear particle at a time to atomic nuclei, starting with the simplest element, hydrogen, whose nucleus consists of just one particle (a proton). But, although there was no trouble in building up helium nuclei, which contain four nuclear particles (two protons and two neutrons), there is no stable nucleus with five nuclear particles and hence no way to take the next step. The solution found eventually by Edwin Salpeter in 1952 is that two helium nuclei can come together in stars to form the unstable nucleus of the isotope beryllium 8, which occasionally before it has a chance to fission into two helium nuclei absorbs yet another helium nucleus and forms a nucleus of carbon. However, as emphasized in 1954 by Fred Hoyke, in order for this process to account for the observed cosmic abundance of carbon, there must be a state of the carbon nucleus that has an energy that gives it an anomalously large probability of being formed in the collison of a helium nucleus and a nucleus of beryllium 8. (Precisely such a state was subsequently found by experimenters working with Hoyle.) Once carbon is formed in stars, there is no obstacle to building up all the heavier elements, including those like oxygen and nitrogen that are necessary for known forms of life. But in order for this to work, the energy of this state of the carbon nucleus must be very close to the energy of a nucleus of beryllium 8 plus the energy of a helium nucleus. If the energy of this state of the carbon nucleus were too large or too small, then little carbon or heavier elements would be formed in stars, and with only hydrogen and helium there would be no way that life could arise. The energies of nuclear states depend in a complicated way on all the constants of physics, such as the masses and electric charges of the different types of elementary particles. It seems at first sight remarkable that these constants should take just the values that are needed to make it possible for carbon to be formed in this way.”",
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                        "text": "“The principles of relativity and quantum mechanics are almost incompatible with each other and can coexist only in a limited class of theories. In the nonrelativistic quantum mechanics of the 1920s we could imagine almost any kind of force among electrons and nuclei, but as we shall see, this is not so in a relativistic theory: forces between particles can arise only from the exchange of other particles. Furthermore, all these particles are bundles of the energy, or quanta, of various sorts of fields. A field like an electric or magnetic field is a sort of stress in space, something like the various sorts of stress that are possible within a solid body, but a field is a stress in space itself. There is one type of field for each species of elementary particle; there is an electron field in the standard model, whose quanta are electrons; there is an electromagnetic field (consisting of electric and magnetic fields) , whose quanta are the photons; there is no field for atomic nuclei, or for particles (known as protons and neutrons) of which the nuclei are composed, but there are fields for various types of particles called quarks, out of which the proton and neutron are composed; and there are a few other fields I need not go into right now. The equations of a field theory like the standard model deal not with particles but with fields; the particles appear as manifestations of these fields. The reason that ordinary matter is composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons is simply that all the other massive particles are violently unstable. The standard model qualifies as an explanation because it is not merely what computer hackers call a kludge, an assortment of odds and ends thrown together in whatever way works. Rather, the structure of the standard model is largely fixed once one specifies the menu of fields that it should contain and the general principles (like the principles of relativity and quantum mechanics) that govern their interactions.”",
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                        "text": "Premature as the question may be, it is hardly possible not to wonder whether we will find any answer to our deepest questions, any signs of the workings of an interested God, in a final theory. I think that we will not.",
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                        "text": "If you have bought one of those T-shirts with Maxwell's equations on the front, you may have to worry about its going out of style, but not about its becoming false. We will go on teaching Maxwellian electrodynamics as long as there are scientists.",
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                        "text": "How then did we come to the \"standard model\"? And how has it supplanted other theories, like the steady state model? It is a tribute to the essential objectivity of modern astrophysics that this consensus has been brought about, not by shifts in philosophical preference or by the influence of astrophysical mandarins, but by the pressure of empirical data.",
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                        "text": "If history is any guide at all, it seems to me to suggest that there is a final theory. In this century we have seen a convergence of the arrows of explanation, like the convergence of meridians toward the North Pole.",
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}
```