---
title: "24 Evolution Quotes By Robert M. Sapolsky"
description: "24 Evolution quotes by Robert M. Sapolsky. Plus more from Robert M. Sapolsky and more Evolution sayings from other authors."
image: "https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/3fa/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_determinism_almost-always-genes-are-about-potentials_3104413.png"
---

> [Almost always, genes are about potentials and vulnerabilities rather than about determinism.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/almost-always-genes-are-about-potentials-and-vulnerabilities-rather/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/3fa/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_determinism_almost-always-genes-are-about-potentials_3104413.png)

> [“People see essentialism embedded in bloodlines—i.e., genes.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/people-see-essentialism-embedded-in-bloodlines-i-e-genes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/f64/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_bloodlines_people-see-essentialism-embedded-in-bloo_2944642.png)

> [“evolution is about reproduction, passing on copies of genes.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/evolution-is-about-reproduction-passing-on-copies-of-genes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a2b/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_biology_evolution-is-about-reproduction-passing_3184654.png)

> [“Back to mutations. Can there be mutations in DNA stretches constituting promoters? Yes,”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/back-to-mutations-can-there-be-mutations-in-dna-stretches/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/69b/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_back-to-mutations-can-there-be-mutations_1253598.png)

> [“If genes strongly influence average levels of a trait, that trait is strongly inherited. If genes strongly influence the extent of variability…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/if-genes-strongly-influence-average-levels-of-a-trait-that-trait-is/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/649/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_if-genes-strongly-influence-average-leve_2460508.jpg)

> [The regulation of genes is often more interesting than the genes themselves, and it's the environment that regulates genes.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-regulation-of-genes-is-often-more-interesting-than-the-genes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d5b/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_environment_the-regulation-of-genes-is-often-more-in_3041625.png)

> [Genes are important for understanding our behavior. Incredibly important - after all, they code for every protein pertinent to brain function, endocrinology,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/genes-are-important-for-understanding-our-behavior-incredibly/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/996/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_behavior_genes-are-important-for-understanding-ou_1444762.png)

> [“Consider this: the human genome codes for about 1,500 different TFs, contains 4,000,000 TF-binding sites, and the average cell uses about 200,000…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/consider-this-the-human-genome-codes-for-about-1-500-different-tfs/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a10/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_consider-this-the-human-genome-codes-for_1789530.png)

> [“What’s a heritability score? “What does a gene do?” is at least two questions. How does a gene influence average levels of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/what-s-a-heritability-score-what-does-a-gene-do-is-at-least-two/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/641/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_what-s-a-heritability-score-what-does-a_2192451.jpg)

> [“Thus transcription factors regulate genes. What regulates transcription factors? The answer devastates the concept of genetic determinism: the environment.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/thus-transcription-factors-regulate-genes-what-regulates/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a88/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_thus-transcription-factors-regulate-gene_1709798.png)

> [“In other words, the more genomically complex the organism, the larger the percentage of the genome devoted to gene regulation by the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-other-words-the-more-genomically-complex-the-organism-the-larger/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/eb6/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_biology_in-other-words-the-more-genomically-comp_58531.png)

> [Genes are rarely about inevitability, especially when it comes to humans, the brain, or behavior. They're about vulnerability, propensities, tendencies.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/genes-are-rarely-about-inevitability-especially-when-it-comes-to/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/2fe/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_behavior_genes-are-rarely-about-inevitability-esp_214039.png)

> [“Our prototypical behavior has occurred. How was it influenced by events when the egg and sperm that formed that person joined, creating…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/our-prototypical-behavior-has-occurred-how-was-it-influenced-by/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/111/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_our-prototypical-behavior-has-occurred-h_1269089.png)

> [“In the 1970s Allan Wilson and Mary-Claire King at Berkeley correctly theorized that the evolution of genes is less important than the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-the-1970s-allan-wilson-and-mary-claire-king-at-berkeley-correctly/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/27c/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_biology_in-the-1970s-allan-wilson-and-mary-clair_2019238.jpg)

> [“As you study the trait in more environments, the heritability score will decrease. This is recognized by Bouchard: “These conclusions \[derived from…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/as-you-study-the-trait-in-more-environments-the-heritability-score/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/511/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_education_as-you-study-the-trait-in-more-environme_396497.png)

> [“Thus, for our purposes, genes aren’t about inevitability. Instead they’re about context-dependent tendencies, propensities, potentials, and vulnerabilities. All embedded in the fabric…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/thus-for-our-purposes-genes-aren-t-about-inevitability-instead-they/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/328/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_thus-for-our-purposes-genes-aren-t-about_50427.png)

> [“EVOLUTION RESTS ON three steps: (a) certain biological traits are inherited by genetic means; (b) mutations and gene recombination produce variation in…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/evolution-rests-on-three-steps-a-certain-biological-traits-are/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/1c4/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_biology_evolution-rests-on-three-steps-a-certain_1106683.png)

> [“As emphasized in the last chapter, epigenetic changes can be multi-generational.8 Dogma was that all the epigenetic marks (i.e., changes in the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/as-emphasized-in-the-last-chapter-epigenetic-changes-can-be-multi/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/00a/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_change_as-emphasized-in-the-last-chapter-epigen_2315076.png)

> [“The difference between survival and reproduction is shown with “antagonistic pleiotropy,” referring to traits that increase reproductive fitness early in life yet…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-difference-between-survival-and-reproduction-is-shown-with/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/42f/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_the-difference-between-survival-and-repr_1115455.jpg)

> [“What is that 95 percent? Some is junk—remnants of pseudogenes inactivated by evolution.fn4,3 But buried in that are the keys to the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/what-is-that-95-percent-some-is-junk-remnants-of-pseudogenes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/27d/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_what-is-that-95-percent-some-is-junk-rem_2726954.png)

> [“Genes have plenty to do with behavior. Even more appropriately, all behavioral traits are affected to some degree by genetic variability.65 They…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/genes-have-plenty-to-do-with-behavior-even-more-appropriately-all/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/cc4/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_behavior_genes-have-plenty-to-do-with-behavior-ev_530129.png)

> [“here’s a highly simplified version of the next chapter’s focus on genes: (a) each gene specifies the production of a specific type…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/here-s-a-highly-simplified-version-of-the-next-chapter-s-focus-on/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/c2b/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_here-s-a-highly-simplified-version-of-th_3014576.png)

> [“Now consider a genome consisting of genes A and B, meaning three different transcription profiles—A is transcribed, B is transcribed, A and…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/now-consider-a-genome-consisting-of-genes-a-and-b-meaning-three/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/ce1/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_now-consider-a-genome-consisting-of-gene_610304.png)

> [“Study a gene in only one environment and, by definition, you’ve eliminated the ability to see if it works differently in other…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/study-a-gene-in-only-one-environment-and-by-definition-you-ve/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/69d/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_evolution_study-a-gene-in-only-one-environment-and_2937342.png)

## Other authors on Evolution

- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b020/author-richard-dawkins-78503.jpg) Richard Dawkins 223 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/richard-dawkins/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b022/author-stephen-jay-gould-87041.jpg) Stephen Jay Gould 106 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/stephen-jay-gould/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b006/author-charles-darwin-22208.jpg) Charles Darwin 103 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/charles-darwin/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b022/author-siddhartha-mukherjee-85288.jpg) Siddhartha Mukherjee 65 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/siddhartha-mukherjee/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b011/author-idries-shah-43105.jpg) Idries Shah 52 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/idries-shah/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b006/author-carl-sagan-20994.jpg) Carl Sagan 46 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/carl-sagan/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b001/author-yuval-noah-harari-100.jpg) Yuval Noah Harari 41 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/yuval-noah-harari/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b005/author-b-b-king-1507543-16033.jpg) Joseph P. Kauffman 41 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/joseph-p-kauffman/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b005/author-bill-nye-18005.jpg) Bill Nye 37 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/bill-nye/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b022/author-steven-pinker-87519.jpg) Steven Pinker 35 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/steven-pinker/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b009/author-francis-crick-35454.jpg) Francis Crick 34 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/francis-crick/)
- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b008/author-e-o-wilson-31102.jpg) E. O. Wilson 33 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/evolution/e-o-wilson/)

## More by Robert M. Sapolsky

> [“Secure-attachment 7Rs show more generosity than average. Thus 7R has something to do with generosity—but its effect is entirely context dependent.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/secure-attachment-7rs-show-more-generosity-than-average-thus-7r-has/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [But if you get chronically, psychosocially stressed, you're going to compromise your health. So, essentially, we've evolved to be smart enough to make ourselves…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/but-if-you-get-chronically-psychosocially-stressed-you-re-going-to/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“Finally, for the same criminal conviction, the more stereotypically Af-rican a black individual’s facial features, the longer the sentence.15 In contrast, juries view black…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/finally-for-the-same-criminal-conviction-the-more-stereotypically-af/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“So testosterone does subtle things to behavior. Nonetheless, this doesn’t tell us much because everything can be interpreted every which way. Testosterone increases anxiety—you…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/so-testosterone-does-subtle-things-to-behavior-nonetheless-this-doesn/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“pain makes aggressive people more aggressive, while doing the opposite to unaggressive individuals.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/pain-makes-aggressive-people-more-aggressive-while-doing-the-opposite/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“Thus, for our purposes, genes aren’t about inevitability. Instead they’re about context-dependent tendencies, propensities, potentials, and vulnerabilities. All embedded in the fabric of the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/thus-for-our-purposes-genes-aren-t-about-inevitability-instead-they/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“If we accept that there will always be sides, it’s a nontrivial to-do list item to always be on the side of angels. Distrust…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/if-we-accept-that-there-will-always-be-sides-it-s-a-nontrivial-to-do/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“In other words, the more genomically complex the organism, the larger the percentage of the genome devoted to gene regulation by the environment.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-other-words-the-more-genomically-complex-the-organism-the-larger/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“The subject of one experiment is a rat that receives mild electric shocks (roughly equivalent to the static shock you might get from scuffing…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-subject-of-one-experiment-is-a-rat-that-receives-mild-electric/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“No brain region is an island, and the formation of circuits connecting far-flung brain regions is crucial—how else can the frontal cortex use its…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/no-brain-region-is-an-island-and-the-formation-of-circuits-connecting/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“We process emotionally salient information more rapidly and automatically, but with less accuracy. Frontal function—working memory, impulse control, executive decision making, risk assessment, and…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/we-process-emotionally-salient-information-more-rapidly-and/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“Most broadly, the PFC chooses between conflicting options—Coke or Pepsi; blurting out what you really think or restraining yourself; pulling the trigger or not.…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/most-broadly-the-pfc-chooses-between-conflicting-options-coke-or/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“One stretch of the gene is repeated a variable number of times, and the version with seven repeats (the “7R” form) produces a receptor…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/one-stretch-of-the-gene-is-repeated-a-variable-number-of-times-and/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [“some people always get more than their share of equality than others”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/some-people-always-get-more-than-their-share-of-equality-than-others/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

> [It's probably even the case that if you stoked up some Buddhist monks with tons of testosterone, they'd become wildly competitive as to who…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/it-s-probably-even-the-case-that-if-you-stoked-up-some-buddhist-monks/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

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                        "text": "“Thus transcription factors regulate genes. What regulates transcription factors? The answer devastates the concept of genetic determinism: the environment.”",
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                        "text": "“Our prototypical behavior has occurred. How was it influenced by events when the egg and sperm that formed that person joined, creating their genome—the chromosomes, the sequences of DNA—destined to be duplicated in every cell in that future person’s body? What role did those genes play in causing that behavior?”",
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                        "text": "“In the 1970s Allan Wilson and Mary-Claire King at Berkeley correctly theorized that the evolution of genes is less important than the evolution of regulatory sequences upstream of genes (and thus how the environment regulates genes). Reflecting that, a disproportionate share of genetic differences between chimps and humans are in genes for TFs.”",
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                        "text": "“As you study the trait in more environments, the heritability score will decrease. This is recognized by Bouchard: “These conclusions [derived from a behavior genetics study] can be generalized, of course only to new populations exposed to a range of environments similar to those studied.”31”",
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                        "text": "“Thus, for our purposes, genes aren’t about inevitability. Instead they’re about context-dependent tendencies, propensities, potentials, and vulnerabilities. All embedded in the fabric of the other factors, biological and otherwise, that fill these pages.”",
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                        "text": "“EVOLUTION RESTS ON three steps: (a) certain biological traits are inherited by genetic means; (b) mutations and gene recombination produce variation in those traits; (c) some of those variants confer more “fitness” than others. Given those conditions, over time the frequency of more “fit” gene variants increases in a population.”",
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                        "text": "“As emphasized in the last chapter, epigenetic changes can be multi-generational.8 Dogma was that all the epigenetic marks (i.e., changes in the DNA or surrounding proteins) were erased in eggs and sperm. But it turns out that epigenetic marks can be passed on by both (e.g., make male mice diabetic, and they pass the trait to their offspring via epigenetic changes in sperm).”",
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                        "text": "“The difference between survival and reproduction is shown with “antagonistic pleiotropy,” referring to traits that increase reproductive fitness early in life yet decrease life span. For example, primates’ prostates have high metabolic rates, enhancing sperm motility. Upside: enhanced fertility; downside: increased risk of prostate cancer. Antagonistic pleiotropy occurs dramatically in salmon, who epically journey to their spawning grounds to reproduce and then die. If evolution were about survival rather than passing on copies of genes, there’d be no antagonistic pleiotropy.2”",
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                        "text": "“What is that 95 percent? Some is junk—remnants of pseudogenes inactivated by evolution.fn4,3 But buried in that are the keys to the kingdom, the instruction manual for when to transcribe particular genes, the on/off switches for gene transcription. A gene doesn’t “decide” when to be photocopied into RNA, to generate its protein. Instead, before the start of the stretch of DNA coding for that gene is a short stretch called a promoterfn5—the “on” switch. What turns the promoter switch on? Something called a transcription factor (TF) binds to the promoter. This causes the recruitment of enzymes that transcribe the gene into RNA. Meanwhile, other transcription factors deactivate genes.”",
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                        "text": "“Genes have plenty to do with behavior. Even more appropriately, all behavioral traits are affected to some degree by genetic variability.65 They have to be, given that they specify the structure of all the proteins pertinent to every neurotransmitter, hormone, receptor, etc. that there is. And they have plenty to do with individual differences in behavior, given the large percentage of genes that are polymorphic, coming in different flavors. But their effects are supremely context dependent.”",
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                        "text": "“here’s a highly simplified version of the next chapter’s focus on genes: (a) each gene specifies the production of a specific type of protein; (b) a gene has to be “activated” for the protein to be produced and “deactivated” to stop producing it—thus genes come with on/off switches; (c) every cell in our bodies contains the same library of genes; (d) during development, the pattern of which genes are activated determines which cells turn into nose, which into toes, and so on; (e) forever after, nose, toes, and other cells retain distinctive patterns of gene activation.”",
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                        "text": "“Now consider a genome consisting of genes A and B, meaning three different transcription profiles—A is transcribed, B is transcribed, A and B are transcribed—requiring three different TFs (assuming you activate only one at a time). Three genes, seven transcription profiles: A, B, C, A + B, A + C, B + C, A + B + C. Seven different TFs. Four genes, fifteen profiles. Five genes, thirty-one profiles.fn7 As the number of genes in a genome increases, the number of possible expression profiles increases exponentially. As does the number of TFs needed to produce those profiles.”",
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                        "text": "“Study a gene in only one environment and, by definition, you’ve eliminated the ability to see if it works differently in other environments (in other words, if other environments regulate the gene differently). And thus you’ve artificially inflated the importance of the genetic contribution. The more environments in which you study a genetic trait, the more novel environmental effects will be revealed, decreasing the heritability score. Scientists study things in controlled settings to minimize variation in extraneous factors and thus get cleaner, more interpretable results—for example, making sure that the plants all have their height measured around the same time of year. This inflates heritability scores, because you’ve prevented yourself from ever discovering that some extraneous environmental factor isn’t actually extraneous.fn22 Thus a heritability score tells how much variation in a trait is explained by genes in the environment(s) in which it’s been studied.”",
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