---
title: "Best Cortex Quotes"
description: "Browse 79 Cortex quotes by 33 authors. Discover the best Cortex sayings and thoughts."
image: "https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/721/catherine-m-pittman-33941_amygdala_the-role-of-the-amygdala-is-to-attach-em_2603849.jpg"
---

> [“The role of the amygdala is to attach emotional significance to situations or objects and to form emotional memories.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-role-of-the-amygdala-is-to-attach-emotional-significance-to/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/721/catherine-m-pittman-33941_amygdala_the-role-of-the-amygdala-is-to-attach-em_2603849.jpg)

> [“The amygdala can accomplish its quick response because of the special properties of another nucleus within it: the central nucleus.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-amygdala-can-accomplish-its-quick-response-because-of-the-special/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/75b/catherine-m-pittman-33941_amygdala_the-amygdala-can-accomplish-its-quick-re_177680.jpg)

> [“In other words, the default state is to trust, and what the amygdala does is learn vigilance and distrust.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-other-words-the-default-state-is-to-trust-and-what-the-amygdala/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/444/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_in-other-words-the-default-state-is-to-t_2515487.png)

> [“how acute stress strengthens connectivity between the frontal cortex and motoric areas, while weakening frontal-hippocampal connections; the result is decision making that…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/how-acute-stress-strengthens-connectivity-between-the-frontal-cortex/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/ee2/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_decision-making_how-acute-stress-strengthens-connectivit_1255094.jpg)

> [“Second depressing finding: subliminal signaling of race also affects the fusiform face area, the cortical region that specializes in facial recognition.11 Damaging…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/second-depressing-finding-subliminal-signaling-of-race-also-affects/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a89/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_second-depressing-finding-subliminal-sig_2589278.png)

> [“anxiety can be produced from two different areas of the brain; the cortex, which produces anxiety based on what we think about,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/matt-lewis/anxiety-can-be-produced-from-two-different-areas-of-the-brain-the/)

[Matt Lewis](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/matt-lewis/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/eac/matt-lewis-26480_anxiety_anxiety-can-be-produced-from-two-differe_1255388.jpg)

> [“stress weakens frontal connections with the hippocampus—essential for incorporating the new information that should prompt shifting to a new strategy—while strengthening frontal…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/stress-weakens-frontal-connections-with-the-hippocampus-essential-for/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/9fd/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_stress_stress-weakens-frontal-connections-with_2903169.png)

> [The skin is no more separated from the brain than the surface of a lake is separate from its depths; the two…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/deane-juhan/the-skin-is-no-more-separated-from-the-brain-than-the-surface-of-a/)

[Deane Juhan](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/deane-juhan/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/063/deane-juhan-45476_brain_the-skin-is-no-more-separated-from-the-b_2111464.jpg)

> [The human race is just getting started… The cerebral cortex is only a hundred thousand years old. It's still a baby, sucking…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/ellen-gilchrist/the-human-race-is-just-getting-started-the-cerebral-cortex-is-only-a/)

[Ellen Gilchrist](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/ellen-gilchrist/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/6c7/ellen-gilchrist-14145_baby_the-human-race-is-just-getting-started-t_2536620.png)

> [In order to produce learned fear, you take a neutral stimulus like a tone, and you pair it with an electrical shock.…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/eric-kandel/in-order-to-produce-learned-fear-you-take-a-neutral-stimulus-like-a/)

[Eric Kandel](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/eric-kandel/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/390/eric-kandel-10189_also_in-order-to-produce-learned-fear-you-tak_1300628.png)

> [“Approaches to treating anxiety that target the cortex pathway are numerous and typically focus on cognitions, the psychological term for the mental…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/approaches-to-treating-anxiety-that-target-the-cortex-pathway-are/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/fd0/catherine-m-pittman-33941_anxiety_approaches-to-treating-anxiety-that-targ_2726296.jpg)

> [“Instead, these findings suggest that the amygdala injects implicit distrust and vigilance into social decision making.23 All thanks to learning. In the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/instead-these-findings-suggest-that-the-amygdala-injects-implicit/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/5b1/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_instead-these-findings-suggest-that-the_3182085.jpg)

> [“Most broadly, the PFC chooses between conflicting options—Coke or Pepsi; blurting out what you really think or restraining yourself; pulling the trigger…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/most-broadly-the-pfc-chooses-between-conflicting-options-coke-or/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/30e/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_decision-making_most-broadly-the-pfc-chooses-between-con_146894.jpg)

> [“This coping skill is essentially a protective reaction against threats to the ego. Neuropsychologists have identified the ventral anterior cingulate cortex and…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/fitzgerald-matt/this-coping-skill-is-essentially-a-protective-reaction-against/)

[Fitzgerald Matt](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/fitzgerald-matt/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/409/fitzgerald-matt-35262_quote_this-coping-skill-is-essentially-a-prote_978432.jpg)

> [“But it turned out that this “unlearning” was not as complete as the scientists first thought. When they severed the neural connections…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/susan-cain/but-it-turned-out-that-this-unlearning-was-not-as-complete-as-the/)

[Susan Cain](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/susan-cain/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/999/susan-cain-647_empire-state_but-it-turned-out-that-this-unlearning-w_3041953.jpg)

> [If you had the perception that you are very stressed out then your grey matter was fully 20 per cent smaller in…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/brigid-schulte/if-you-had-the-perception-that-you-are-very-stressed-out-then-your/)

[Brigid Schulte](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/brigid-schulte/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/dad/brigid-schulte-15835_feelings_if-you-had-the-perception-that-you-are-v_2904341.png)

> [There is one brain organ that is optimised for understanding and articulating logical processes and that is the outer layer of the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/ray-kurzweil/there-is-one-brain-organ-that-is-optimised-for-understanding-and/)

[Ray Kurzweil](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/ray-kurzweil/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/1c1/ray-kurzweil-3529_articulating_there-is-one-brain-organ-that-is-optimis_725731.jpg)

> [“This brings up a key concept, namely the inverted U. The complete absence of stress is aversively boring. Moderate, transient stress is…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/this-brings-up-a-key-concept-namely-the-inverted-u-the-complete/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/253/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_individual-differenc_this-brings-up-a-key-concept-namely-the_2834303.jpg)

> [“The most convincing data concern rare humans with damage restricted to the amygdala, either due to a type of encephalitis or a…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-most-convincing-data-concern-rare-humans-with-damage-restricted/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/36e/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_the-most-convincing-data-concern-rare-hu_2401553.jpg)

> [“Moreover, sustained stress and glucocorticoid exposure enhance LTP and suppress LTD in the amygdala, boosting fear conditioning, and suppress LTP in the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/moreover-sustained-stress-and-glucocorticoid-exposure-enhance-ltp-and/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/5d7/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_fear_moreover-sustained-stress-and-glucocorti_3182363.png)

> [“Experiements that have been devised to inflict even mild social pain (like exclusion form a group task or betrayal by a partner…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-j-linden/experiements-that-have-been-devised-to-inflict-even-mild-social-pain/)

[David J. Linden](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-j-linden/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/922/david-j-linden-50018_emotional-pain_experiements-that-have-been-devised-to-i_1399353.jpg)

> [“During sustained stress, the amygdala processes emotional sensory information more rapidly and less accurately, dominates hippocampal function, and disrupts frontocortical function; we’re…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/during-sustained-stress-the-amygdala-processes-emotional-sensory/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/af2/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_during-sustained-stress-the-amygdala-pro_886372.jpg)

> [“Moving beyond mere correlation, if you lesion the amygdala in an animal, rates of aggression decline. The same occurs transiently when you…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/moving-beyond-mere-correlation-if-you-lesion-the-amygdala-in-an/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/e53/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_aggression_moving-beyond-mere-correlation-if-you-le_1074053.jpg)

> [Neurobiological research has shown that in people with chronic PTSD, both stress hormone secretion and areas of the brain connected to memory…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/siri-hustvedt/neurobiological-research-has-shown-that-in-people-with-chronic-ptsd/)

[Siri Hustvedt](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/siri-hustvedt/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/31a/siri-hustvedt-860_affected_neurobiological-research-has-shown-that_2810890.jpg)

> [“So if whites see a black face shown at a subliminal speed, the amygdala activates.10 But if the face is shown long…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/so-if-whites-see-a-black-face-shown-at-a-subliminal-speed-the/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/94b/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_black-face_so-if-whites-see-a-black-face-shown-at-a_1244754.png)

> [I was talking to my friend who's a psychologist, who says a woman's frontal cortex isn't fully developed till 25 and a…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/reese-witherspoon/i-was-talking-to-my-friend-who-s-a-psychologist-who-says-a-woman-s/)

[Reese Witherspoon](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/reese-witherspoon/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/5a6/reese-witherspoon-2395_changed_i-was-talking-to-my-friend-who-s-a-psych_3134496.jpg)

> [The amygdala is like a point guard in the emotional part of your middle brain. When it is overwhelmed, it hijacks you…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/mark-goulston/the-amygdala-is-like-a-point-guard-in-the-emotional-part-of-your/)

[Mark Goulston](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/mark-goulston/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/f5d/mark-goulston-4177_ability_the-amygdala-is-like-a-point-guard-in-th_2476777.png)

> [“The “Intense World” paper proposed that if the amygdala, which is associated with emotional responses, including fear, is affected by sensory overload,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/temple-grandin/the-intense-world-paper-proposed-that-if-the-amygdala-which-is/)

[Temple Grandin](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/temple-grandin/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a4c/temple-grandin-1219_amygdala_the-intense-world-paper-proposed-that-if_725162.jpg)

> [“The existence of different memory systems explains why you can experience anxiety in a situation without any conscious memory (or understanding) of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-existence-of-different-memory-systems-explains-why-you-can/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/635/catherine-m-pittman-33941_anxiety_the-existence-of-different-memory-system_2922375.jpg)

> [We've done fMRI scans of people taking the 'Reading the Eyes' test, and what we've found is that the amygdala lights up…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/simon-baron-cohen/we-ve-done-fmri-scans-of-people-taking-the-reading-the-eyes-test-and/)

[Simon Baron-Cohen](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/simon-baron-cohen/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/359/simon-baron-cohen-12415_amygdala_we-ve-done-fmri-scans-of-people-taking-t_2636035.jpg)

> [“The quest for seizing that amygdala moment, those crushing seconds of unbearable, incapacitating shock, seizing these moments and not letting them go,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/jon-ronson/the-quest-for-seizing-that-amygdala-moment-those-crushing-seconds-of/)

[Jon Ronson](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/jon-ronson/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d1d/jon-ronson-1772_adventure_the-quest-for-seizing-that-amygdala-mome_885469.jpg)

> [“LeDoux and others have shown how auditory information about the tone stimulates BLA neurons. At first, activation of those neurons is irrelevant…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/ledoux-and-others-have-shown-how-auditory-information-about-the-tone/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/518/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_ledoux-and-others-have-shown-how-auditor_3160946.jpg)

> [Now the amygdala is our early warning detector, our danger detector. It sorts and scours through all of the information looking for…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/peter-diamandis/now-the-amygdala-is-our-early-warning-detector-our-danger-detector-it/)

[Peter Diamandis](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/peter-diamandis/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/0e2/peter-diamandis-1516_amygdala_now-the-amygdala-is-our-early-warning-de_1337924.png)

> [“We process emotionally salient information more rapidly and automatically, but with less accuracy. Frontal function—working memory, impulse control, executive decision making, risk…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/we-process-emotionally-salient-information-more-rapidly-and/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/f07/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_decision-making_we-process-emotionally-salient-informati_123615.jpg)

> [“someone’s hand being poked with a needle, and subjects have an “isomorphic sensorimotor” response—hands tense in empathy. Among both whites and blacks,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/someone-s-hand-being-poked-with-a-needle-and-subjects-have-an/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/a20/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_empathy_someone-s-hand-being-poked-with-a-needle_1228971.jpg)

> [“in adults the anterior cingulate cortex activates when they see someone hurt. Ditto for the amygdala and insula, especially in instances of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-adults-the-anterior-cingulate-cortex-activates-when-they-see-2/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b05/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_empathy_in-adults-the-anterior-cingulate-cortex_2081583.png)

> [“Logically, when the amygdala wants to mobilize a behavior—say, fleeing—it talks to the frontal cortex, seeking its executive approval. But if sufficiently…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/logically-when-the-amygdala-wants-to-mobilize-a-behavior-say-fleeing/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b8a/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_logically-when-the-amygdala-wants-to-mob_405859.png)

> [“study the brain behavior of subjects presented with both positive and negative imagery. She found that for young people, their amygdala (a…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/cal-newport/study-the-brain-behavior-of-subjects-presented-with-both-positive-and/)

[Cal Newport](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/cal-newport/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/fde/cal-newport-1302_focus_study-the-brain-behavior-of-subjects-pre_2758657.jpg)

> [“Glutamate signaling works in a fancier way that is essential to learning.2 To simplify considerably, while dendritic spines typically contain only one…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/glutamate-signaling-works-in-a-fancier-way-that-is-essential-to/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/1ac/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_glutamate-signaling-works-in-a-fancier-w_3209406.png)

## Top authors on Cortex

- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b021/author-robert-m-sapolsky-80021.jpg) Robert M. Sapolsky 34 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/cortex/robert-m-sapolsky/)
- [Catherine M. Pittman 9 quotes](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/cortex/catherine-m-pittman/)

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                        "text": "“anxiety can be produced from two different areas of the brain; the cortex, which produces anxiety based on what we think about, and the amygdala, which reacts to what is happening in our environment.”",
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                        "text": "The human race is just getting started… The cerebral cortex is only a hundred thousand years old. It's still a baby, sucking teat and eating Cheerios. We might get better, maybe even wise, if we can last another thousand years.",
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                        "text": "In order to produce learned fear, you take a neutral stimulus like a tone, and you pair it with an electrical shock. Tone, shock. Tone, shock. So the animal learns that the tone is bad news. But you can also do the opposite - shock it at other times, but never when the tone comes on.",
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                        "text": "“Approaches to treating anxiety that target the cortex pathway are numerous and typically focus on cognitions, the psychological term for the mental processes that most people refer to as “thinking.”",
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                        "text": "“Instead, these findings suggest that the amygdala injects implicit distrust and vigilance into social decision making.23 All thanks to learning. In the words of the authors of the study, “The generosity in the trust game of our BLA-damaged subjects might be considered pathological altruism, in the sense that inborn altruistic behaviors have not, due to BLA damage, been un-learned through negative social experience.” In other words, the default state is to trust, and what the amygdala does is learn vigilance and distrust.”",
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                        "text": "“Most broadly, the PFC chooses between conflicting options—Coke or Pepsi; blurting out what you really think or restraining yourself; pulling the trigger or not. And often the conflict being resolved is between a decision heavily driven by cognition and one driven by emotions. Once it has decided, the PFC sends orders via projections to the rest of the frontal cortex, sitting just behind it. Those neurons then talk to the “premotor cortex,” sitting just behind it, which then passes it to the “motor cortex,” which talks to your muscles. And a behavior ensues.”",
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                        "text": "“This coping skill is essentially a protective reaction against threats to the ego. Neuropsychologists have identified the ventral anterior cingulate cortex and the medial orbitofrontal cortex as two areas of the brain that “light up” when a person’s ego has been attacked and he responds not by cowering or playing deaf but instead by rallying in his own defense. This pattern of brain activity is the neurological substrate of bulletin boarding, and bulleting boarding is the salient coping skill of every endurance athlete who achieves greatness despite having the “wrong body” for his or her sport.”",
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                        "text": "“But it turned out that this “unlearning” was not as complete as the scientists first thought. When they severed the neural connections between the rats’ cortex and amygdala, the rats became afraid of the sound again. This was because the fear conditioning had been suppressed by the activity of the cortex, but was still present in the amygdala. In humans with unwarranted fears, like batophobia, or fear of heights, the same thing happens. Repeated trips to the top of the Empire State Building seem to extinguish the fear, but it may come roaring back during times of stress—when the cortex has other things to do than soothe an excitable amygdala.”",
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                        "text": "If you had the perception that you are very stressed out then your grey matter was fully 20 per cent smaller in volume than people who did not have that same feeling. This is the grey matter in your prefrontal cortex: It controls thinking, learning, planning, decision-making. That matters because when we are feeling more stressed, that is when we are at our most vulnerable in our inability to think our way out of it.",
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                        "text": "There is one brain organ that is optimised for understanding and articulating logical processes and that is the outer layer of the brain, called the cerebral cortex. Unlike the rest of the brain, this relatively recent evolutionary development is rather flat, only about 0.32 cm (0.12 in) thick and includes a mere 6 million neurons. This elaborately folded organ provides us with what little competence we do possess for understanding what we do and who we do it.",
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                        "text": "“This brings up a key concept, namely the inverted U. The complete absence of stress is aversively boring. Moderate, transient stress is wonderful—various aspects of brain function are enhanced; glucocorticoid levels in that range enhance dopamine release; rats work at pressing levers in order to be infused with just the right amount of glucocorticoids. And as stress becomes more severe and prolonged, those good effects disappear (with, of course, dramatic individual differences as to where the transition from stress as stimulatory to overstimulatory occurs; one person’s nightmare is another’s hobby).”",
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                        "text": "“The most convincing data concern rare humans with damage restricted to the amygdala, either due to a type of encephalitis or a congenital disorder called Urbach-Wiethe disease, or where the amygdala was surgically destroyed to control severe, drug-resistant seizures originating there.5 Such individuals are impaired in detecting angry facial expressions (while being fine at recognizing other emotional states—stay tuned).”",
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                        "text": "I was talking to my friend who's a psychologist, who says a woman's frontal cortex isn't fully developed till 25 and a man's till 28. I was almost 34 when we met; he was 39. So I wouldn't say either of us has wildly changed; I just love him more and more.",
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                        "text": "The amygdala is like a point guard in the emotional part of your middle brain. When it is overwhelmed, it hijacks you away from being able to access your upper rational brain and think and assess what to do. It essentially disables your ability to think.",
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                        "text": "Now the amygdala is our early warning detector, our danger detector. It sorts and scours through all of the information looking for anything in the environment that might harm us. So given a dozen news stories, we will preferentially look at the negative news.",
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                        "text": "“We process emotionally salient information more rapidly and automatically, but with less accuracy. Frontal function—working memory, impulse control, executive decision making, risk assessment, and task shifting—is impaired, and the frontal cortex has less control over the amygdala. And we become less empathic and prosocial. Reducing sustained stress is a win-win for us and those stuck around us.”",
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                        "text": "“someone’s hand being poked with a needle, and subjects have an “isomorphic sensorimotor” response—hands tense in empathy. Among both whites and blacks, the response is blunted for other-race hands; the more the implicit racism, the more blunting. Similarly, among subjects of both races, there’s more activation of the (emotional) medial PFC when considering misfortune befalling a member of their own race than of another race.”",
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                        "text": "“in adults the anterior cingulate cortex activates when they see someone hurt. Ditto for the amygdala and insula, especially in instances of intentional harm—there is anger and disgust. PFC regions including the (emotional) vmPFC are on board. Observing physical pain (e.g., a finger being poked with a needle) produces a concrete, vicarious pattern: there is activation of the periaqueductal gray (PAG), a region central to your own pain perception, in parts of the sensory cortex receiving sensation from your own fingers, and in motor neurons that command your own fingers to move.fn3 You clench your fingers. Work by Jean Decety of the University of Chicago shows that when seven-year-olds watch someone in pain, activation is greatest in the more concrete regions—the PAG and the sensory and motor cortices—with PAG activity coupled to the minimal vmPFC activation there is. In older kids the vmPFC is coupled to increasingly activated limbic structures.13 And by adolescence the stronger vmPFC activation is coupled to ToM regions. What’s happening? Empathy is shifting from the concrete world of “Her finger must hurt, I’m suddenly conscious of my own finger” to ToM-ish focusing on the pokee’s emotions and experience.”",
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                        "text": "“Logically, when the amygdala wants to mobilize a behavior—say, fleeing—it talks to the frontal cortex, seeking its executive approval. But if sufficiently aroused, the amygdala talks directly to subcortical, reflexive motor pathways. Again, there’s a trade-off—increased speed by by-passing the cortex, but decreased accuracy. Thus the input shortcut may prompt you to see the cell phone as a gun. And the output shortcut may prompt you to pull a trigger before you consciously mean to.”",
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                        "text": "“study the brain behavior of subjects presented with both positive and negative imagery. She found that for young people, their amygdala (a center of emotion) fired with activity at both types of imagery. When she instead scanned the elderly, the amygdala fired only for the positive images. Carstensen hypothesizes that the elderly subjects had trained the prefrontal cortex to inhibit the amygdala in the presence of negative stimuli. These elderly subjects were not happier because their life circumstances were better than those of the young subjects; they were instead happier because they had rewired their brains to ignore the negative and savor the positive. By skillfully managing their attention, they improved their world without changing anything concrete about”",
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                        "text": "“Glutamate signaling works in a fancier way that is essential to learning.2 To simplify considerably, while dendritic spines typically contain only one type of receptor, those responsive to glutamate contain two. The first (the “non-NMDA”) works in a conventional way—for every little smidgen of glutamate binding to these receptors, a smidgen of sodium flows in, causing a smidgen of excitation. The second (the “NMDA”) works in a nonlinear, threshold manner. It is usually unresponsive to glutamate. It’s not until the non-NMDA has been stimulated over and over by a long train of glutamate release, allowing enough sodium to flow in, that this activates the NMDA receptor. It suddenly responds to all that glutamate, opening its channels, allowing an explosion of excitation.”",
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