---
title: "79 Cortex Quotes by 33 authors"
description: "Browse 79 Cortex quotes by 33 authors. Discover the best Cortex sayings and thoughts."
image: "https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b52/richard-davidson-27788_inspirational_spatial-working-memory-is-impaired-by-st_177525.png"
---

> [Spatial working memory is impaired by stress.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/richard-davidson/spatial-working-memory-is-impaired-by-stress/)

[Richard Davidson](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/richard-davidson/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b52/richard-davidson-27788_inspirational_spatial-working-memory-is-impaired-by-st_177525.png)

> [The cortex is the enemy.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wim-hof/the-cortex-is-the-enemy/)

[Wim Hof](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/wim-hof/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/955/wim-hof-11665_enemy_the-cortex-is-the-enemy-2269169_2269169.jpg)

> [Visual cortex is fundamentally a machine whose job is to generate a model of the world.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-eagleman/visual-cortex-is-fundamentally-a-machine-whose-job-is-to-generate-a/)

[David Eagleman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-eagleman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b99/david-eagleman-2079_computers_visual-cortex-is-fundamentally-a-machine_11821.png)

> [The frontal cortex doesn't even fully develop until age 25, which is wild!](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-frontal-cortex-doesn-t-even-fully-develop-until-age-25-which-is/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/c96/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_age_the-frontal-cortex-doesn-t-even-fully-de_1029293.png)

> [“the cortex uses the same computational tool to accomplish everything it does.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/jeff-hawkins/the-cortex-uses-the-same-computational-tool-to-accomplish-everything/)

[Jeff Hawkins](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/jeff-hawkins/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/74f/jeff-hawkins-23542_cortex_the-cortex-uses-the-same-computational-t_2146844.png)

> [“Civilization is a product of the cerebral cortex.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/carl-sagan/civilization-is-a-product-of-the-cerebral-cortex/)

[Carl Sagan](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/carl-sagan/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d57/carl-sagan-160_civilization_civilization-is-a-product-of-the-cerebra_1916023.jpg)

> [“anterior medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices (amPFC, PCC)—while”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-disalvo/anterior-medial-prefrontal-and-posterior-cingulate-cortices-ampfc-pcc/)

[David DiSalvo](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-disalvo/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/ecb/david-disalvo-3662_cortex_anterior-medial-prefrontal-and-posterior_2858610.jpg)

> [“The frontal lobes are one of the most important parts of the cortex to understand.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-frontal-lobes-are-one-of-the-most-important-parts-of-the-cortex/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/e01/catherine-m-pittman-33941_cortex_the-frontal-lobes-are-one-of-the-most-im_326437.jpg)

> [The new frontiers to be conquered are mainly in the convolutions of the cortex.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/arthur-koestler/the-new-frontiers-to-be-conquered-are-mainly-in-the-convolutions-of/)

[Arthur Koestler](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/arthur-koestler/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/8bf/arthur-koestler-1903_frontiers_the-new-frontiers-to-be-conquered-are-ma_2150041.jpg)

> [“new study has shown that routine daily stress shuts down the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for decision making,…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/rudolph-e-tanzi/new-study-has-shown-that-routine-daily-stress-shuts-down-the/)

[Rudolph E. Tanzi](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/rudolph-e-tanzi/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/426/rudolph-e-tanzi-63436_decision-making_new-study-has-shown-that-routine-daily-s_2526596.jpg)

> [“As the level of ambiguity increases, amygdalae activity continues to increase, and ventral striatum activity continues to decrease.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-disalvo/as-the-level-of-ambiguity-increases-amygdalae-activity-continues-to/)

[David DiSalvo](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-disalvo/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/337/david-disalvo-3662_quote_as-the-level-of-ambiguity-increases-amyg_1105521.jpg)

> [“The quick reaction that results from the amygdala pathway is typically called the fight-or-flight response.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-quick-reaction-that-results-from-the-amygdala-pathway-is/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/b6f/catherine-m-pittman-33941_amygdala_the-quick-reaction-that-results-from-the_620723.jpg)

> [“you asked amygdala experts what behavior their favorite brain structure brings to mind, “aggression” wouldn’t top their list. It would be fear…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/you-asked-amygdala-experts-what-behavior-their-favorite-brain/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/913/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_aggression_you-asked-amygdala-experts-what-behavior_2755966.png)

> [Along with our many human propensities, we evolved a huge cerebral cortex with which we make decisions.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/helen-fisher/along-with-our-many-human-propensities-we-evolved-a-huge-cerebral/)

[Helen Fisher](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/helen-fisher/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/cd0/helen-fisher-2469_cerebral_along-with-our-many-human-propensities-w_814101.png)

> [“Sustained stress has numerous adverse effects. The amygdala becomes overactive and more coupled to pathways of habitual behavior; it is easier to…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/sustained-stress-has-numerous-adverse-effects-the-amygdala-becomes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/913/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_sustained-stress-has-numerous-adverse-ef_1536381.jpg)

> [“The lateral nucleus is the part of the amygdala that receives incoming messages from the senses.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-lateral-nucleus-is-the-part-of-the-amygdala-that-receives/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/039/catherine-m-pittman-33941_quote_the-lateral-nucleus-is-the-part-of-the-a_1072393.jpg)

> [“The close connection of the central nucleus to elements of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) provides the amygdala with a great deal…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-close-connection-of-the-central-nucleus-to-elements-of-the/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/4e6/catherine-m-pittman-33941_nervous-system_the-close-connection-of-the-central-nucl_1110966.jpg)

> [Brains distinguish between an Us and a Them in a fraction of a second. Subliminal processing of a Them activates the amygdala…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/brains-distinguish-between-an-us-and-a-them-in-a-fraction-of-a-second/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/5aa/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_activate_brains-distinguish-between-an-us-and-a-t_206829.jpg)

> [“Stick recording electrodes into numerous species’ amygdalaefn9 and see when neurons there have action potentials; this turns out to be when the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/stick-recording-electrodes-into-numerous-species-amygdalaefn9-and-see/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/d1a/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_stick-recording-electrodes-into-numerous_1867495.jpg)

> [“Powerful support for an amygdaloid role in fear processing comes from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In PTSD sufferers the amygdala is overreactive…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/powerful-support-for-an-amygdaloid-role-in-fear-processing-comes-from/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/676/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_amygdala_powerful-support-for-an-amygdaloid-role_394424.jpg)

> [“THE AMYGDALAfn8 IS the archetypal limbic structure, sitting under the cortex in the temporal lobe. It is central to mediating aggression, along…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-amygdalafn8-is-the-archetypal-limbic-structure-sitting-under-the/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/881/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_the-amygdalafn8-is-the-archetypal-limbic_813192.png)

> [“Moderate, transient stress (i.e., the good, stimulatory stress) promotes hippocampal LTP, while prolonged stress disrupts it and promotes LTD—one reason why cognition…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/moderate-transient-stress-i-e-the-good-stimulatory-stress-promotes/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/e87/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_stress_moderate-transient-stress-i-e-the-good-s_280952.png)

> [“It’s not until the non-NMDA has been stimulated over and over by a long train of glutamate release, allowing enough sodium to…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/it-s-not-until-the-non-nmda-has-been-stimulated-over-and-over-by-a/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/1ff/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_fitness_it-s-not-until-the-non-nmda-has-been-sti_238807.png)

> [“The amygdala responds to imaginary information in the same way it responds to a real situation, so anxiety brought about by thoughts…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/matt-lewis/the-amygdala-responds-to-imaginary-information-in-the-same-way-it/)

[Matt Lewis](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/matt-lewis/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/fa6/matt-lewis-26480_anxiety_the-amygdala-responds-to-imaginary-infor_1648484.jpg)

> [NMDA receptors are concentrated in the areas that control learning and memory, higher functions like multitasking, and some of the more subtle…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/susannah-cahalan/nmda-receptors-are-concentrated-in-the-areas-that-control-learning/)

[Susannah Cahalan](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/susannah-cahalan/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/281/susannah-cahalan-12404_control_nmda-receptors-are-concentrated-in-the-a_2975869.jpg)

> [“the brain is hardwired to allow the amygdala to seize control in times of danger. And because of this wiring, it’s difficult…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/catherine-m-pittman/the-brain-is-hardwired-to-allow-the-amygdala-to-seize-control-in/)

[Catherine M. Pittman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/catherine-m-pittman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/855/catherine-m-pittman-33941_anxiety_the-brain-is-hardwired-to-allow-the-amyg_1122744.jpg)

> [“When you get the news that everyone else disagrees with you, there is also activation of the (emotional) vmPFC, the anterior cingulate…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/when-you-get-the-news-that-everyone-else-disagrees-with-you-there-is/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/cdb/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_when-you-get-the-news-that-everyone-else_3106716.png)

> [“Joseph LeDoux at New York University has shown how the BLA learns fear.fn14,20 Expose a rat to an innate trigger of fear—a…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/joseph-ledoux-at-new-york-university-has-shown-how-the-bla-learns/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/351/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_fear_joseph-ledoux-at-new-york-university-has_478330.jpg)

> [“Diallo, a West African immigrant in New York, matched a description of a rapist. Four white officers questioned him, and when the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/diallo-a-west-african-immigrant-in-new-york-matched-a-description-of/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/626/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_cortex_diallo-a-west-african-immigrant-in-new-y_3127502.jpg)

> [“Chapter 3 discusses some unsettling research—stick your average person in a brain scanner, and show him a picture of someone of another…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/chapter-3-discusses-some-unsettling-research-stick-your-average/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/88f/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_average-person_chapter-3-discusses-some-unsettling-rese_213059.jpg)

> [The anterior cingulate fires up as the end result of a series of events. First, estrogen levels fall. Meanwhile, serotonin, the feel-good…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/anonymous/the-anterior-cingulate-fires-up-as-the-end-result-of-a-series-of/)

[Anonymous](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/anonymous/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/f27/anonymous-1_causes_the-anterior-cingulate-fires-up-as-the-e_2633183.jpg)

> [“in adults the anterior cingulate cortex activates when they see someone hurt. Ditto for the amygdala and insula, especially in instances of…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/in-adults-the-anterior-cingulate-cortex-activates-when-they-see/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/079/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_physical-pain_in-adults-the-anterior-cingulate-cortex_963548.png)

> [Despite their differences, pride, shame, and guilt all activate similar neural circuits, including the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, insula, and the nucleus…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-d-burns/despite-their-differences-pride-shame-and-guilt-all-activate-similar/)

[David D. Burns](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-d-burns/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/4c7/david-d-burns-4607_activate_despite-their-differences-pride-shame-an_1460697.jpg)

> [The frontal cortex is an incredibly interesting part of the brain - ours is proportionately bigger and/or more complex than in any…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/the-frontal-cortex-is-an-incredibly-interesting-part-of-the-brain/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/1c9/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_bigger_the-frontal-cortex-is-an-incredibly-inte_2276817.png)

> [“Did destruction of the human amygdala lessen aggression? Pretty clearly so, when violence was a reflexive, inchoate outburst preceding a seizure.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/robert-m-sapolsky/did-destruction-of-the-human-amygdala-lessen-aggression-pretty/)

[Robert M. Sapolsky](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/robert-m-sapolsky/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/251/robert-m-sapolsky-1166_aggression_did-destruction-of-the-human-amygdala-le_2885539.png)

> [Once we start believing that the apocalypse is coming, the amygdala goes on high alert, filtering out most anything that says otherwise.](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/peter-diamandis/once-we-start-believing-that-the-apocalypse-is-coming-the-amygdala/)

[Peter Diamandis](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/peter-diamandis/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/e26/peter-diamandis-1516_alert_once-we-start-believing-that-the-apocaly_753256.png)

> [“amygdalae filter through the information to determine its threat-level significance and mobilizes a response.”](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-disalvo/amygdalae-filter-through-the-information-to-determine-its-threat/)

[David DiSalvo](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-disalvo/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/dba/david-disalvo-3662_cortex_amygdalae-filter-through-the-information_539885.jpg)

> [“even a small amount of ambiguity triggers increased activity in the amygdalae—two deep brain structures that play a major role in our…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/david-disalvo/even-a-small-amount-of-ambiguity-triggers-increased-activity-in-the/)

[David DiSalvo](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/david-disalvo/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/6d5/david-disalvo-3662_cortex_even-a-small-amount-of-ambiguity-trigger_2844902.jpg)

> [The amygdala, along with related areas..., plays a crucial role in coordinating perceptions with memory and behavior. These regions are especially sensitive…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/daniel-j-siegel/the-amygdala-along-with-related-areas-plays-a-crucial-role-in/)

[Daniel J. Siegel](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/daniel-j-siegel/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/067/daniel-j-siegel-13364_amygdala_the-amygdala-along-with-related-areas-pl_2596215.png)

> [The amygdala in the emotional center sees and hears everything that occurs to us instantaneously and is the trigger point for the…](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/daniel-goleman/the-amygdala-in-the-emotional-center-sees-and-hears-everything-that/)

[Daniel Goleman](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/author/daniel-goleman/)

[Image](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/i/412/daniel-goleman-1599_emotional_the-amygdala-in-the-emotional-center-see_2034441.jpg)

## Top authors on Cortex

- [ ![](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/wp-content/uploads/sms4s/authors/processed/b021/author-robert-m-sapolsky-80021.jpg) Robert M. Sapolsky 34 quotes ](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/cortex/robert-m-sapolsky/)
- [Catherine M. Pittman 9 quotes](https://sms4smile.com/quotes/about/cortex/catherine-m-pittman/)

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                        "text": "“Powerful support for an amygdaloid role in fear processing comes from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In PTSD sufferers the amygdala is overreactive to mildly fearful stimuli and is slow in calming down after being activated.13 Moreover, the amygdala expands in size with long-term PTSD.”",
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                        "text": "“THE AMYGDALAfn8 IS the archetypal limbic structure, sitting under the cortex in the temporal lobe. It is central to mediating aggression, along with other behaviors that tell us tons about aggression.”",
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                        "text": "“Moderate, transient stress (i.e., the good, stimulatory stress) promotes hippocampal LTP, while prolonged stress disrupts it and promotes LTD—one reason why cognition tanks at such times. This is the inverted-U concept of stress writ synaptic.4”",
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                        "text": "“It’s not until the non-NMDA has been stimulated over and over by a long train of glutamate release, allowing enough sodium to flow in, that this activates the NMDA receptor. It suddenly responds to all that glutamate, opening its channels, allowing an explosion of excitation. This is the essence of learning.”",
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                        "text": "“The amygdala responds to imaginary information in the same way it responds to a real situation, so anxiety brought about by thoughts and images created in the cortex is just as strong as the anxiety you will experience from a real and live situation or threat.”",
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                        "text": "NMDA receptors are concentrated in the areas that control learning and memory, higher functions like multitasking, and some of the more subtle aspects of personality. When the immune system makes antibodies that attack these receptors, people may have seizures and violent fits.",
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                        "text": "“the brain is hardwired to allow the amygdala to seize control in times of danger. And because of this wiring, it’s difficult to directly use reason-based thought processes arising in the higher levels of the cortex to control amygdala-based anxiety. You may have already recognized that your anxiety often doesn’t make sense to your cortex, and that your cortex can’t just reason it away.”",
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                        "text": "“When you get the news that everyone else disagrees with you, there is also activation of the (emotional) vmPFC, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the nucleus accumbens. This is a network mobilized during reinforcement learning, where you learn to modify your behavior when there is a mismatch between what you expected to happen and what actually did. Find out that everyone disagrees with you and this network activates. What is it basically telling you? Not just that you’re different from everyone else. That you’re wrong. Being different = being wrong. The greater the activation of this circuit, the greater the likelihood of changing answers to conform.”",
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                        "text": "“Joseph LeDoux at New York University has shown how the BLA learns fear.fn14,20 Expose a rat to an innate trigger of fear—a shock. When this “unconditioned stimulus” occurs, the central amygdala activates, stress hormones are secreted, the sympathetic nervous system mobilizes, and, as a clear end point, the rat freezes in place—“What was that? What do I do?” Now do some conditioning. Before each shock, expose the rat to a stimulus that normally does not evoke fear, such as a tone. And with repeated coupling of the tone (the conditioned stimulus) with the shock (the unconditioned one), fear conditioning occurs—the sound of the tone alone elicits freezing, stress hormone release, and so on.fn15”",
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                        "text": "“Diallo, a West African immigrant in New York, matched a description of a rapist. Four white officers questioned him, and when the unarmed Diallo started to pull out his wallet, they decided it was a gun and fired forty-one shots. The underlying neurobiology concerns “event-related potentials” (ERPs), which are stimulus-induced changes in electrical activity of the brain (as assessed by EEG—electroencephalography). Threatening faces produce a distinctive change (called the P200 component) in the ERP waveform in under two hundred milliseconds. Among white subjects, viewing someone black evokes a stronger P200 waveform than viewing someone white, regardless of whether the person is armed. Then, a few milliseconds later, a second, inhibitory waveform (the N200 component) appears, originating from the frontal cortex—“Let’s think a sec about what we’re seeing before we shoot.” Viewing a black individual evokes less of an N200 waveform than does seeing someone white. The greater the P200/N200 ratio (i.e., the greater the ratio of I’m-feeling-threatened to Hold-on-a-sec), the greater the likelihood of shooting an unarmed black individual.”",
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                        "text": "“Chapter 3 discusses some unsettling research—stick your average person in a brain scanner, and show him a picture of someone of another race for only a tenth of a second. This is too fast for him to be aware of what he saw. But thanks to that anatomical shortcut, the amygdala knows . . . and activates. In contrast, show the picture for a longer time. Again the amygdala activates, but then the cognitive dlPFC does as well, inhibiting the amygdala—the effort to control what is for most people an unpalatable initial response.”",
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                        "text": "The anterior cingulate fires up as the end result of a series of events. First, estrogen levels fall. Meanwhile, serotonin, the feel-good neurotransmitter, also decreases. The deficiency in serotonin causes the anterior cingulate gyrus to fire up. To make things worse, just about this time the PFC tends to quiet down, which is why women may have a hard time focusing and controlling impulses. So we see emotional difficulties, intensified feelings of sadness, and disturbed sleep.",
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                        "text": "“in adults the anterior cingulate cortex activates when they see someone hurt. Ditto for the amygdala and insula, especially in instances of intentional harm—there is anger and disgust. PFC regions including the (emotional) vmPFC are on board. Observing physical pain (e.g., a finger being poked with a needle) produces a concrete, vicarious pattern: there is activation of the periaqueductal gray (PAG), a region central to your own pain perception, in parts of the sensory cortex receiving sensation from your own fingers, and in motor neurons that command your own fingers to move.fn3 You clench your fingers.”",
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                        "text": "Despite their differences, pride, shame, and guilt all activate similar neural circuits, including the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, insula, and the nucleus accumbens. Interestingly, pride is the most powerful of these emotions at triggering activity in these regions - except in the nucleus accumbens, where guilt and shame win out. This explains why it can be so appealing to heap guilt and shame on ourselves - they're activating the brain's reward center.",
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